Steel, aluminum or copper, batteries or electronics: Uyghur forced labor is “significantly” present in the supply chain of almost every major car manufacturer in the world, according to a study by Sheffield Hallam University in the UK and cited by AFP.

“If you bought a car in the last five years, some of its parts were probably made by Uyghurs and others were forced to work in China,” said the four authors of the study, published Tuesday after a six-month investigation.

According to the researchers, all major brands are being targeted, including Volkswagen, BMW, BMW, Honda, Ford, GM, GM, Mercedes-Benz, Toyota, Stellantis (including Fiat, Chrysler, Dodge and Jeep), Tesla and China’s Ni.

The powerful UAW auto union responded by “urgently demanding that the auto industry move its entire supply chain out of” China’s northeastern Xinjiang region, home to many Uyghurs.

Human rights groups have accused China of recruiting Uyghurs into forced “labor displacement” programs linked to international supply chains in sectors ranging from clothing to automobiles.

Beijing, which denies any persecution of the Muslim minority in the country’s far-eastern province, says the initiatives reduce poverty by providing well-paid jobs to poor rural residents.

The study, published on Tuesday, is part of a series of studies by Sheffield Hallam University documenting the use of forced labor in Xinjiang in a range of sectors, from cotton to PVC building materials and solar panels.

The researchers consulted sources such as company annual reports, websites and advertising campaigns, as well as Chinese government guidelines, state media and customs records.

In particular, the study notes that “the world’s largest steel and aluminum producers have moved to the Uyghur region thanks to subsidies and incentives provided by the Chinese government.”

According to the researchers, the automakers responded that “full traceability of the supply chain is not available and understanding the situation in the Uyghur region is difficult.”

But the industry must ensure its supply chains are tracked to “ensure it is not complicit in the forced labor regime in the Uyghur region,” otherwise it faces “significant legal, ethical and reputational risk,” according to the researchers.